“Buried Bones and Buddhas Beyond. Ancestor Cults in 17th-century Khams
and the Transcendentalisation of Tibetan Religion” is an article by Reinier J.
Langelaar, originally published in 2022 in a collection of scholarly papers on
Tibet. I found it free-standing (and for free) on the web. Langelaar has analyzed
the works of 17th century Buddhist Karma chags med, a native of
Khams or Kham in eastern Tibet who was trained in both the Kagyu and Nyingma
traditions. They apparently form an important milestone in how the pre-Buddhist
ancestor cults of Tibetan villages and clans were “transcendentalized” and
eventually replaced by Buddhism altogether.
The cults of the ancestors are very far removed from Buddhism. The most
obvious difference is that the ancestral spirits don´t reincarnate. Indeed,
it´s not even clear whether they are “spirits” at all, since they are conceptualized
in purely material terms. The only material thing the ancestors lack is an
actual physical body. Otherwise, they have exactly the same desires, thoughts
and even foibles as their living relatives. They can experience hunger, thirst
and cold. Perhaps they even crave sex or love, since there are occasional
reports of ancestors haggling for spouses from among the living! For all these
reasons, the ancestors must be appeased with food, drink, clothing and respectful
worship in general. In return, they bestow good luck on their descendants. If
treated improperly, they can cause misfortune instead, for instance by
attacking horses or livestock.
The entire ancestral cult is very “this-worldly” from a Buddhist perspective.
Indeed, Buddhists might even interpret certain aspects of it as an active
attempt to stop reincarnation. After the usual “sky-burial”, the bones of the
ancestors are gathered together and placed in whitewashed vases together with
offerings such as jewels. They are hence supposed to stay around as protectors
of the clan. By contrast, Buddhism is “other-worldly”, its goal is the super-intangible
nirvana, it believes in some form of rebirth or reincarnation, salvation is not
clan-based, and so on.
It seems Karma chags med tried to reconcile the
ancestral cults with Buddhism, but in such a manner that Buddhism remained on
top. Thus, he claimed that Ban thung, the ancestor of the Brong pa clan in
Khams, was a bodhisattva dwelling in a pure Buddha-field, while also emanating
a kind of body double who acted as the chief ancestor of the clan on here on
Earth. Conversely, Buddhist luminaries such as Padmasambhava (who had no known
lineage) were recast as powerful “ancestors”. Karma chags med also introduced
Tantric rituals during the secondary burials. Thus, when gathering the bones of
the deceased ancestor, the powerful bodhisattva Manjushri should be invoked. But
what about reincarnation? Here, the solution was rather obvious: humans have
more than one soul or spirit, one of them remaining as an ancestor, while the other
is reborn in a new body.
Flash forward 400 years. When the author visited Khams, he quickly
realized that the ancestral cults had all but disappeared in the area inhabited
by the Brong pa. Only one person was aware of their previous existence, and
showed the author an old tree-shrine to Ban thung, who had fallen into disuse long
ago. But…Ban thung *is* still worshipped in the area, in the form of an idol
standing on the grounds of a Buddhist monastery! He is, after all, a bodhisattva
now…
I suppose paganism has been succesfully replaced in Tibet.